Punctuation #2

Using spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and the correct reading, both silently and aloud, of handwritten and printed texts.

Hyphen and Dashes: The hyphen ( – ), en dash ( – ), and em dash ( — ) look similar but are of different lengths. They also perform different functions. Only the hyphen receives a dedicated key on most computer keyboards. The method of inserting the other marks varies based on your word processor.

• Hyphen (-)

For most writers, the hyphen’s primary function is the formation of certain compound terms. The hyphen is also used for word division.

• Compound terms: Compound terms are those that consist of more than one word but represent a single item or idea.
  • Compound nouns: Compound nouns are the easiest to deal with: most can be looked up in a good dictionary.
  • Compound verbs: Compound verbs (e.g., waterproof, highlight, rubber-stamp, nickel-and-dime) also are typically included in a good dictionary.
  • Compound adjectives: The most difficult compound terms to deal with are the compound adjectives. Most of them will not be found in any dictionary. For another, whether they are hyphenated or not depends on their position within a sentence. Whether to hyphenate or not is often a matter of style. Two or more words that collectively act as an adjective should be hyphenated when they appear immediately before the noun they modify. This helps prevent misreading.

• En Dash (–)

The en dash (–) is slightly wider than the hyphen (-) but narrower than the em dash (—). The typical computer keyboard lacks a dedicated key for the en dash, though most word processors provide a means for its insertion.

• Span or range of numbers: The en dash is used to represent a span or range of numbers, dates, or time. There should be no space between the en dash and the adjacent material. Depending on the context, the en dash is read as “to” or “through.” If you introduce a span or range with words such as from or between, do not use the en dash.
  • Scores: The en dash is used to report scores or results of contests.
  • Conflict or connection: The en dash can also be used between words to represent conflict, connection, or direction.
  • Compound adjectives: When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en dash. This is an aesthetic choice more than anything.

• Em Dash (—)

The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context, the em dash can replace commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different effect. Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances per sentence. Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result.

Do not mistake the em dash (—) for the slightly narrower en dash (–) or the even narrower hyphen (-). Those marks serve different purposes and are further explained in other sections.

• Em dashes in place of parentheses: A pair of em dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered less formal than parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw attention to the parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the parenthetical content more subtly, use parentheses. Note that when dashes are used in place of parentheses, surrounding punctuation should be omitted. Compare these examples. When used in place of parentheses at the end of a sentence, only a single dash is used.
  • The em dash in place of a colon: The em dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the conclusion of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon.
  • Multiple em dashes: Two em dashes can indicate missing portions of a word, whether unknown or intentionally omitted. When an entire word is missing, either two or three em dashes can be used. Whichever length you choose, use it consistently throughout your document. Surrounding punctuation should be placed as usual.
  • Spaces with the em dash: The em dash is typically used without spaces on either side. Most newspapers, however, set the em dash off with a single space on each side.

Quotations

• Quotation Marks (“ ”)

Quotation marks are primarily used to indicate material being reproduced word for word, and some other important uses.

• Run-in quotations: Short quotations can generally be run in to the main text using quotation marks.
  • Block quotations: Longer quotations should be set off from the main text, and are called block quotations. Because the quoted material is set off from the main text, it is unnecessary to use quotation marks. Style varies, but at a minimum a block quotation should have a left-hand margin bigger than the main text. In contrast to the main text, a block quotation might also have a bigger right-hand margin, be in a smaller or otherwise different font, or have reduced line spacing.
  • Comma: The comma is the mark most frequently used to introduce quoted material.
  • Colon: A colon should be used when the text introducing the quoted material could stand as a sentence on its own. It is also the mark most commonly used to introduce a block quotation.
  • Period: A period can introduce a block quotation when the introductory text stands on its own as a complete sentence. In such cases, a colon is also proper—and sometimes preferable.
  • No punctuation: When the quoted material flows directly from your introductory text, no punctuation should be used before the quotation. A short quotation may also be introduced without punctuation. The unpunctuated lead-in is most commonly used with run-in quotations, but it is also appropriate for introducing block quotations that flow directly from the introductory text.
  • Quotes within quotes: When a run-in quotation contains quotation marks within the quoted material itself, use single quotation marks in their place. When the material being quoted contains a quotation within a quotation (i.e., something in single quotation marks), use double quotation marks.

• Ellipses (…)

An ellipsis is a set of three periods (. . .) indicating an omission. Each period should have a single space on either side, unless adjacent to a quotation mark, in which case there should be no space.

• Informal writing: In informal writing, an ellipsis can represent a trailing off of thought. An ellipsis can also indicate hesitation, though in this case the punctuation is more accurately described as suspension points. Like the exclamation point, the ellipsis is at risk of overuse.
  • In quoted material: Ellipses are most useful when working with quoted material. There are various methods of deploying ellipses.
  • Ellipses at the beginning of a quotation: It is rarely necessary to use ellipsis points at the beginning of a quotation, even if the quotation begins mid-sentence. It is also usually acceptable to change the capitalization of the first word of the quotation to match the surrounding material.
  • Quotations placed in the middle of a sentence: When a quotation is included within a larger sentence, do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of the quoted material, even if the beginning or end of the original sentence has been omitted.
  • Quotations placed at the end of a sentence: When a quotation is placed at the end of a sentence, but the quoted material is only part of a larger sentence, authorities differ on the use of ellipsis points.
  • Ellipses for omitted material within a single quoted sentence: Use ellipsis points to show omission within the quotation. Omit any punctuation on either side of the ellipsis, unless the punctuation is necessary to make the shortened quotation grammatically correct.
  • Ellipses for omitted material spanning two or more sentences: When a quotation is presented as a single sentence made up of material from two or more original sentences, ellipses should be used for all omitted segments.

• Brackets ([ ])
  • Clarification: If the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear, brackets can be used for clarification.
  • Translation: If a quotation includes a foreign word or phrase that might not be understood, provide a translation in brackets.
  • Indicating a change in capitalization: In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets.
  • Indicating errors: The Latin term sic, meaning “so” or “thus,” is used to indicate an error or confirm an unusual usage in the original material. Without the sic, a reader might wonder if the error was made by the writer offering the quotation. Note that sic should be italicized, but the brackets containing it should not.
  • Emphasis: If you use italics to emphasize a portion of the quotation, indicate the change in brackets.
  • Objectionable content: If the original material contains language you deem inappropriate for your audience, brackets can remove it.
  • Parenthetical within parenthetical: In the rare event that parentheses are required within parentheses, use brackets instead. This is one of the few uses of brackets outside of quotations.
  • Brackets in the material being quoted: If the material being quoted already contains brackets, this should be noted.

Other Points

• Parenthesis ( )
  • Placement of other punctuation: When a parenthetical sentence stands on its own, the closing punctuation mark for the sentence is placed inside the closing parenthesis. When parenthetical content occurs at the end of a larger sentence, the closing punctuation mark for the sentence is placed outside the closing parenthesis. When parenthetical content occurs in the middle of a larger sentence, the surrounding punctuation should be placed outside the parentheses, exactly as it would be if the parenthetical content were not there. When a complete sentence occurs in parentheses in the middle of a larger sentence, it should neither be capitalized nor end with a period—though a question mark or exclamation point is acceptable.
  • Specialized uses: Numbered or lettered lists should use a pair of parentheses to enclose the numbers or letters. Time zones are usually enclosed in parentheses following the time. Area codes are sometimes enclosed in parentheses. Short translations in unquoted text can be placed in parentheses. In some writing, a person’s year of birth and year of death are provided in parentheses when the person is first mentioned. If there is uncertainty about the year, a question mark should follow it.
  • Abbreviations and acronyms: On the first use of an abbreviation or acronym that might not be understood by your readers, the full term can be provided in parentheses.

• Apostrophe (‘)
  • Contractions: Contractions (e.g., let’s, don’t, couldn’t, it’s, she’s) have a bad reputation. Avoid the most common contraction–apostrophe error: the contraction of it is is it’s; without the apostrophe, its is the possessive form of it. In informal writing, it is acceptable to indicate a year with only the last two digits preceded by an apostrophe (e.g., the class of ’85, pop music from the ’80s).
  • Plurals: The apostrophe is seldom used to form a plural noun. The rare exception to the rule is when certain abbreviations, letters, or words are used as nouns, as in these examples. Unless the apostrophe is needed to avoid misreading or confusion, omit it.
  • Possessives: The formation of possessives is treated in different ways by different authorities.Generally the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and s, whether the singular noun ends in s or not. The possessive of a plural noun is formed by adding only an apostrophe when the noun ends in s, and by adding both an apostrophe and s when it ends in a letter other than s.
  • Exceptions to the general rule: Use only an apostrophe for places or names that are singular but have a final word in plural form and ending with an s. Nouns that end in an s sound take only an apostrophe when followed by sake. A proper noun already in possessive form is left as is.
  • The apostrophe with other punctuation: The apostrophe should never be separated from the word to which it attaches by adjacent punctuation.

• Slash (/)

The slash ( / ), also known as the virgule, has several uses, most of which should be avoided in formal writing. Never use a backslash ( \ ) in place of a slash.

• Poetry: The one inarguably acceptable use of the slash in formal writing pertains to poetry. The slash, with one space on either side, indicates a line break.
  • Meaning per: The slash sometimes serves as shorthand for per.
  • Meaning and: The slash sometimes serves as shorthand for and.
  • Meaning or: The slash sometimes serves as shorthand for or.
  • In place of the Latin preposition cum: The Latin preposition cum means “combined with,” “also used as,” or “along with being.” The slash is sometimes used to convey the same meaning.
  • Abbreviations: Certain abbreviations are formed with a slash.
  • Fractions: The slash is used to separate the numerator from the denominator in fractions.
  • Conflict or connection: The slash is sometimes used to represent a conflict or connection between two things. As explained here, the en dash can perform the same role.
  • Two-year spans: The slash is sometimes used to indicate something spanning two years.

• Angle Brackets (< >)

Angle brackets < > are rarely used. In the early days of the internet, angle brackets were sometimes used to enclose an email or web address. This was thought to avoid confusion about whether certain punctuation marks belonged to the address or the surrounding sentence.

Now that most people understand the conventions of web and email addresses, this use of angle brackets is unnecessary.

• Braces ({ })

Braces { }, also known as curly brackets, are used in various programming languages, certain mathematical expressions, and some musical notation. They should never be used in place of parentheses ( ) or square brackets [ ].