Punctuation #1

The use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and the correct reading, both silently and aloud, of handwritten and printed texts.

Terminal Points: generally, a sentence ends with only one terminal punctuation mark. There are three options:

• Period (.)
  • Multiple punctuations: If a sentence otherwise ends with a question mark or exclamation point, the period is omitted. If a sentence ends with an abbreviation, the period used for the acronym also serves as the period for the sentence. This is true even if the acronym is contained within a quotation.
  • Direct and indirect questions: An indirect question ends with a period, not a question mark.
  • Proper placement of the period with parentheses: If a sentence ends with a parenthetical only part of a larger sentence, the period is placed outside the closing parenthesis. If the parenthetical is itself an entire sentence, the period is placed inside the closing parenthesis.
  • Proper placement of the period with quotation marks: If a sentence ends with quoted material, the period is placed inside the closing quotation mark, even if the period is not part of the original quotation. Note, however, that if the quoted material itself ends with a question mark or exclamation point, the period is omitted.
  • Abbreviations: Besides ending a sentence, the period is used with certain abbreviations. The current style is to use periods with most lowercase and mixed-case abbreviations (examples: a.m., etc., vol., Inc., Jr., Mrs., Tex.) and to omit periods with most uppercase abbreviations (examples: FBI, IRS, ATM, NATO, NBC, TX). Note, however, that many scientific and technical abbreviations are formed without periods, even when they are lowercase or mixed-case. Examples: kHz (kilohertz), rpm (revolutions per minute), kg (kilogram), Na (sodium), 1st (first). And a few uppercase abbreviations, including academic degrees, retain periods. Ex: U.S. (United States), J.D. (Juris Doctor), D.D.S. (Doctor of Dental Surgery).

• Question Mark (?)
  • Direct questions: The question mark is used at the end of a direct question. Indirect questions take a period.
  • Direct questions within a sentence: When a direct question occurs within a larger sentence, it takes a question mark.
  • As part of a title of work: A syntactically necessary comma is retained. When the question mark in the title comes at the end of a sentence that would itself require a question mark or period, the additional question mark or period is omitted.
  • Requests: Requests phrased as questions should end with a period.
  • Expressing uncertainty: The question mark can indicate editorial uncertainty, either in parentheses or in brackets. Some authorities include a space between the uncertain word and the opening parenthesis; others omit the space.

• Exclamation Point (!)

The most flagrant way a writer demonstrates contempt for his readers is by ignoring punctuation altogether. A close second is the abundant use of the exclamation point. Some writers even use three or more exclamation points, lest the reader not fully grasps the significance of what is being said. To be effective, the exclamation point should be used in moderation.

• At the end of a sentence: The exclamation point is a mark of terminal punctuation. It should not be followed by a period or question mark. Some writers will use both a question mark and exclamation point for an exclamatory question, but only the exclamation point is truly necessary. There is a punctuation mark that combines the question mark and exclamation point. It is called the interrobang, and it looks like this: ‽ yet, for reasons already explained, it is hardly needed.
  • In the middle of a sentence: When a quotation ends with an exclamation point, a comma ordinarily placed inside the closing quotation mark is omitted.
  • As part of a title of work: If the exclamation point is part of a title of work or a proper noun, the comma should be retained.

Pausing Points

• Comma (,)

The comma is the punctuation mark most likely to cause angst. This is largely the result of the many ways the comma is used. Sometimes, the comma indicates a pause that would occur if the sentence were spoken aloud. Other times, the comma separates grammatical components of the sentence. Finally, mechanical and stylistic uses of the comma are simply conventional.

The presence or absence of a comma can change the meaning of a sentence—sometimes dramatically. In extreme cases, an erroneous comma can make a sentence mean the exact opposite of what the writer intended. A careful writer must be a careful user of commas.

• The listing comma: Though not necessarily mechanical, using commas in lists is well established. In this usage, the comma separates a series of words, phrases, or independent clauses.
• Numbers: Most authorities, including The Associated Press Stylebook and The Chicago Manual of Style, recommend a comma after the first digit of a four-digit number. The exceptions include years, page numbers, and street addresses.
• Jr. and Inc.: The trend with these labels is to omit the comma.
• Degrees and certifications: When a degree or certification is shown after a person’s name, it should be set off with commas.
• Direct address: When directly addressing someone, the person’s name or title should be set off with commas.
• Dates: When a date consists of the day of the month followed by the year, the day of the month should be followed by a comma. When the day of the week is provided before the month, the day of the week should be followed by a comma. When the date appears in the middle of a sentence, commas should appear both before and after the year. When a date is an adjective, most authorities require a comma following the year. No comma is used between the month and the year when they are the only two elements in the date.
• Geographic references: Commas should separate geographic elements. The final geographic element should also be followed by a comma when it appears in the middle of a sentence.
• That and which: These words are frequently misused. That serves as a restrictive pronoun and therefore does not take a comma.
• Interrupting elements: When a nonessential word or phrase occurs in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas.
• Afterthoughts: When a word or phrase follows the main clause at the end of a sentence, it should normally be set off with a comma. When a sentence ends with an adverb that is essential to the meaning of the sentence, the adverb should not be set off with a comma.

• Semicolon (;)

The semicolon is sometimes described as stronger than a comma but weaker than a period. In certain uses, this is a reasonably accurate definition.

• Between independent clauses when a coordinating conjunction is omitted: Most commonly, the semicolon is used between two independent clauses (i.e., clauses that could stand alone as separate sentences) when a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) is omitted.
  • Between independent clauses linked by a transitional expression: The semicolon is also used between two independent clauses linked by a transitional expression (e.g., consequently, for example, nevertheless, so, thus).
  • In lists with internal commas: The semicolon can also be used in lists with internal commas.
  • In elliptical constructions: When combined with a comma, the semicolon can be used in elliptical constructions.

• Colon (:)
  • Introducing a list: The colon is used to introduce a list of items. Do not, however, use a colon when the listed items are incorporated into the flow of the sentence.
  • Between independent clauses when the second explains or illustrates the first: The colon is used to separate two independent clauses when the second explains or illustrates the first. In such usage, the colon functions in much the same way as the semicolon. As with the semicolon, do not capitalize the first word after the colon unless the word is ordinarily capitalized. When two or more sentences follow a colon, capitalize the first word following the colon.
  • Emphasis: The colon can emphasize a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence.
  • Time: The colon is used to separate hours from minutes, with no space before or after the colon.
  • Ratio: The colon is used to express a ratio of two numbers, with no space before or after the colon.
  • Biblical references: The colon is used in biblical references to separate chapter from verse, with no space before or after the colon.
  • Correspondence: The colon is frequently used in business and personal correspondence.